Introduction
Indo-China
is the eastern part of Indochinese Peninsula and comprises of modern countries
of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
The
continental portion of Southeast Asia lying east of India and roughly south of
china is known as Indochinease Peninsula or Mainland Southeast Asia.
This
got its name as Indo-China as referring to the location of the territory
between 'India' and 'China' by French as French established its colony in this
region in Nam Ky which they called Cochin-China which was the southernmost
portion of Vietnam.
The
Indo China Peninsula comprises of modern countries of Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia
(Peninsular Malaysia only), Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.
Vietnam
is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. Hanoi
is the capital of Vietnam since 1975 after the reunification of North and South
Vietnam.
Emerging
from the Shadow of China
Indo–China
was a part of Imperial China for almost thousand years, i.e. from 111 BC to 939
AD. In 939 AD after victory in the Battle of Bach Dang River an independent
Vietnamese state formed. From then several successive Vietnamese royal
dynasties ruled there.
Vietnam
was a part of maritime silk route. Since Vietnam was part of Imperial China for
a long time so, even after independence of Vietnam, its rulers continued to
maintain the Chinese system of governance as well as Chinese culture and
practices.
Colonial
Domination and Resistance
In
1858 French troops landed in Vietnam and established its grip over northern
region by mid 1980. French occupied Tonkin (southern part of Vietnam) and Anaam
(Central part of Vietnam) after French Chinese war. In 1987 French Indo China
was formed.
After
colonization, in order to consolidate their power and position; French started
to influence and reshape the culture and way of thinking of Vietnamese. This
brought to discontent among Vietnamese as they sought loss and disturbance in
all areas of their life. This led to emergence of strong Nationalism among
Vietnamese and they started confrontation at all front with French.
Why
the French Thought Colonies Necessary
At
that time most of Western nations thought that colonies were essential to
supply natural and other essential goods. Along with this they thought, people
of other nations were backward and it was their duty to civilize them.
In
order to enhance the supply of essential goods, French started to build canals
and drainage systems in the Mekong delta to increase agriculture produce. This
resulted as Vietnam became the largest exporter of rice in the world by 1931.
These
developments were followed by many infrastructure projects, such as
construction of rail network that would link the northern and southern parts of
Vietnam and China. This final rail link with Yunan in China was completed by
1910.
To
ensure higher levels of profit to their businessman French started pressurizing
the government of Vietnam to develop the infrastructure further.
Should
Colonies be Developed?
Everyone
knew and agreed that colonies only fed the interest of mother country. Paul
Bernard, one of the influential writers of that time, believed that purpose of
the colony was to make profit. And to ensure more profit, economy of the
colonies needed to be developed. For that the standard of living of the people
should be improved so that people could buy more goods to increase profits of
French businessman.
High
population level, low agriculture produce and indebtedness among the peasants
are main barriers to the economic development in Vietnam. So, land reforms were
necessary as had done in Japan in 1890s. But, lands reforms could not ensure
sufficient employment and Japanese showed that industrialization would be
essential to create more jobs to ensure development of people.
But,
the economy of colony in Vietnam was primarily based on rice production and
rubber plantation. Fields to produce rice and plantation of rubber were owned
by French and a few Vietnamese elite. This spread landlordism especially in
rural areas and standard of living of people declined. In rubber plantation
indentured Vietnamese labours were widely used.
The
French contrary to what Bernard would have liked did little to industrialise
the economy.
The
Dilemma of Colonial Education
Similar
to British in India, French colonization was not based only on economic
exploitation rather also driven by the idea of 'civilising mission'. They
believed that they are only civilized people and it was their duty to civilized
Vietnamese even at the cost of destroying local cultures, religions and
traditions; as French sought these cultures, religions and traditions are
outdated.
Education
was seen as one way to civilize the native, but the French had many dilemma and
doubts regarding educating the Vietnamese. After getting education Vietnamese
might begin to question colonial domination, French may loses jobs, such as
teachers, shopkeepers, policemen, etc. Some of the French started opposing
policies that would give full access to French education to Vietnamese.
Talking
Modern
Vietnamese
were greatly influenced by Chinese culture, so to consolidate the power; French
had to counter the Chinese influence. So, they decided to educate people in
Vietnamese language at lower class and French in higher class so that by
learning French language and culture Vietnamese would respect French sentiments
and ideals and understood the superiority of French culture. For this French
systematically dismantled the traditional educational system and established
French schools for Vietnamese. The few who learnt French and acquired French
culture were to be rewarded with French citizenship.
School
textbooks were designed to glorify the French and justified the colonial rule,
while Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward. Vietnamese were represented
only capable of manual labour, skilled copyist but not intelligent and
creative. School children were told that only French rule could ensure peace in
Vietnam.
However,
only small fraction of elite Vietnamese could enroll in the schools and out of
them only few were declared passed the school leaving examination. In 1925 in a
population of 17 million, there were less than 400 who passed the examination.
Looking
Modern
French
who lived in Vietnam were called 'Colon'. Colon believed that only education
was not enough to learn Western ideas rather to look modern was also necessary.
The school encouraged adoption of Western styles, such as having a short
haircut and Western outfits.
For
this Tonkin Free School was started 1907 to provide a Western education
including classes in science, hygiene and French.
Vietnamese
this meant major break with their own identity as they traditionally kept long
hair and their dress was also different.
Resistance
in Schools
Teachers
along with students did not blindly follow the curriculum as that was. While
teaching; Vietnamese teachers quietly modified the text and used to criticize
what was written in books. There was open opposition sometimes while sometimes
silent resistances on many issues as most of the teachers were Vietnamese in
lower classes. So, it became difficult for French to control what was actually
being taught.
In
1926, in Saigon Native Girls School, a Vietnamese girl refused to vacate the
front seat for a French student, resulting in expulsion from school by Colon
Principal. This led to protest by many students. Students who protested also
expelled from school which resulted in further open protests. Seeing the
situation out of control students were took back to the school with warning.
Students
were inspired by patriotic feelings and the conviction that it was the duty of
the educated to fight for the benefit of society. So, they started raising
their voice and fighting against Government efforts to prevent Vietnamese from
white collar jobs.
By 1920,
many political parties were formed by students, such as Party of Yong Annan.
They started publishing nationalist journals, such as Annanese Student.
French
were trying to consolidate and strengthen their power through education by
changing the value and perceptions of the people to make them believe in the
superiority of French civilization. On the other hand, Vietnamese intellectuals
were in feared in losing not just control over its territories but their very
identity, culture and customs which were being devalued and the people were
developing a master slave mentality.
Thus,
schools became one of the important places for political and cultural
confrontation. The confrontation against French colonial education became part
of larger battle against colonialism and for independence.
Everyday
Resistance
Hygiene,
Disease and Everyday Resistance
Apart
from education, many other aspects became the causes of resistance by
Vietnamese with French.
Plague
Strikes Hanoi
French
rebuilt Hanoi as modern city with latest ideas of architecture and engineering
skill. The city was built as a beautiful and clean city with wide avenues and a
well led out sewer system, while the native quarter was not provided with any
modern facilities.
In
1903 the modern part of Hanoi where French lived, struck by bubonic plague.
Similar to other colonies, in Vietnam also measures to control the spread of
plague created serious conflict.
The
refuse from the old city drains out into the river. During rainy season and
flood situation drains overflowed into the streets in old city. Broad drains in
modern part of the city of Hanoi were proved as the ideal and protected ground
of breeding for rats. Sewers served as a great transport system and rats were
allowed to move around the city through them without any hindrance. Rats easily
could enter to the modern houses made for French through sewage pipes.
The
Rat Hunt
To
stop plague it was necessary to kill rats so French started a rat hunt in 1902.
Vietnamese workers were hired to catch rats. They were paid per rat they
caught. Workers have only to produce tail of rats as proof, for which they were
paid.
Rat
hunt seemed to provide an early lesson in the success of bargaining to
Vietnamese. Those who did dirty work to enter into sewers found that if they
came together they could bargain higher bounty for rat hunts. They started
catching rats and let them free after clipping tails only so that the process
could be repeated. Some started raising rats to earn bounty.
French
found that instead of killing of thousands of rats plague was not prevented.
Finally, after defeated by resistance of the weak; French forced to stop the
bounty program for rat hunt.
The
rat menace marks the limits of French power and the contradictions in their
civilizing mission. And the actions of the rat catchers tell about the numerous
small ways in which colonialism was fought in everyday of life.
Religion
and Anti colonialism
Vietnamese
belief was of variety of syncretic traditions that combined Budhhism, Chinese,
Confucianism and local beliefs. Along with these there were many popular
religions in Vietnam that were spread by people who claimed to have seen a
vision of God.
Colonialism
was trying to dominate in all aspects of private and public life. Where French
occupied Vietnam by military power; on the other hand they sought to reshape
the social and cultural life also. While religion was one of the weapons in
strengthening colonial control, on the other hand it provided ways of
resistance for Vietnamese. From eighteenth century, many religious movements
were hostile to the Western presence.
Catholic
missionaries had been active in winning converts since the early seventeenth
century and by the middle of eighteenth century had converted some 300,000.
Scholars
Revolt
In
1868 a revolt against the spread of Christianity and French control took place.
This revolt was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of
Catholicism and French power. This revolt is known as Scholars Revolt.
In
the provinces of Ngu An and Ha Tien over a thousand Catholic were killed in
this Scholar Revolt. The French crushed the movement but this uprising served
as inspiration to other patriots to rise up against them.
Hoa
Hao Movement
Huynh
Phu was the founder of Hoa Hao. Hoa Hao movement started in 1939 and gained
great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta areas. This movement drew on
religious ideas popular in anti French uprisings of the nineteenth century.
Huynh
Phu criticized against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He helped the
poor and opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and
opium.
The
French declared Huyun Phu mad to suppress the movement and called him Mad Bonze
and put him in a metal asylum. But, the doctor who had to prove Huyun Phu mad
and insane became his follower and finally in 1941, and even the French doctor
also declared as sane. The French authority exiled him to Laos and sent many of
his followers to concentration camps.
Such
movements always had a contradictory relationship with mainstream nationalism
as political parties neither support nor completely denied them.
Yet
such religious and other movements were continued in arousing anti imperialism
sentiments.
The
Vision of Modernization
French
colonialism was facing confrontation and resistance at different levels in
various forms. Vietnamese had also many questions regarding modernisation and
nationalism. There were different types of arguments prevalent regarding those
things. Some thought that they had to resist colonialism by keeping their
culture intact while some thought that they had to resist colonialism with learning
from West.
In
the late nineteenth century, resistance to French domination was very often led
by Confucian Scholar activists, who saw their world crumbling.
Duy
Tan Hoi: A Revolutionary Society
Phan
Boi Chau was one of nationalist and became a major figure in the anti colonial
resistance. He was educated in Confucian tradition. He formed the Revolutionary
society called Duy Tan Hoi in 1903 with Prince Cuong De as the head.
Phan
Boi met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao in Yokohama in 1905. Under the
influence and advice of Liang Qichao, Phan Boi wrote an influential book, 'The
History of the Loss of Vietnam'. This book read widely and became bestseller in
Vietnam and China. This book became so famous that it was made into play. The
main theme of the book was the loss of sovereignty and the severing of ties
with China. Ties that bound the elites of two countries within shared culture.
Phan
Chu Trinh (1871 - 1926)
Phan
Chu Trinh was other nationalist who intensely hostile to the monarchy and
opposed to the idea of resisting the French with the help of the court. Phan
Chu had completely different view with Phan Boi Chau.
He
sought to establish a democratic republic and did not want to reject the
Western civilization completely. He accepted the French revolutionary ideal of
liberty but charged the French for not abiding by the ideal. He demanded
setting up of legal and educational institutions, and developing agriculture
industries by French.
Other
Ways of Becoming Modern: Japan and China
Japan
had modernized itself and resisted colonization by West. In 1904 Japan proved
its military capabilities by victory over Russia.
In
1911 the long established monarchy in China was overthrown by a popular
movement under Yat-sen and Republic was set up.
These
development inspired revolutionist and Japan and China became the symbol of
model for those looking for change especially in Vietnamese at that time.
Go
East Movement
To
go to east, (east was Japan) was called Go East Movement. In 1907 to 1908 about
300 Vietnamese students went to Japan to acquire modern education. To drive out
the French from Vietnam and to overthrow the puppet emperor and re establish
the Nguyen dynasty that had been deposed by French was the main objective of
many of the students went to Japan.
Vietnamese
students established a branch of the Restoration Society in Tokyo. But after
1908, many including Phan Boi Chau, were deported and forced to seek exile in
China and Thailand by Japanese Government.
Now
the Nature of the anti French independence movement changed. The objective now
became to set up a democratic republic rather than a constitutional monarchy.
And soon the anti-imperialist movement in Vietnam came under a new type of
leadership.
The
Communist Movement and Vietnamese Nationalism
The
Great Depression
The
impact of The Great Depression in 1930 has a profound impact on Vietnam. At
that time the prices of rubber and rice fell resulting in rising rural debts,
unemployment and rural uprising. The provinces of Nghe An and Ha Tinh were
badly affected at that time which were among the poorest and had an old radical
traditions. These provinces were called the 'Electrical Fuses of Vietnam' as
they first to blow when the system was under pressure.
The
French put these uprising down with great severity, even using planes to bomb
demonstrators.
Ho
Chi Minh brought competing nationalist groups together and established the
Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party. The name of this party
became Indo-Chinese Communist Party later. Ho Chi Minh was inspired by the
militant demonstrations of European Communist parties.
Independence
of Vietnam
Japan
Occupied Vietnam and Independence of Vietnam
As a
part of imperial drive to control Southeast Asia; Japan occupied Vietnam in
1940. Now Vietnamese had to fight against Japan along with French.
The
New Republic of Vietnam
The
Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed in 1945 and Ho Chi Minh became
Chairman. But, Vietnam as a new republic had to face many challenges.
French
were trying to regain control over by using emperor Bao Dai as their puppet.
Because of French offence, Vietminh had to retreat to hills. This fight
continued for eight years and finally French were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien
Phu.
On
7th May 1954 in this fight, Vietminh captured more than 16000 French soldiers,
the entire commanding staff, including a general, 16 colonels and 1749 officers
and were taken prisoner.
After
French defeat; in peace negotiation; in Geneva, Vietnamese were forced to
accept division of the country. And Vietnam divided into two parts i.e. North
Vietnam and South Vietnam.
Ho
Chi Minh and the communist took power in the North while Bao Dai was put in
power in the south.
Vietnam
as a New Battlefield
After
division Vietnam turned in battlefield because of series of events resulting in
death and destruction to people and environment.
A
coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem overthrown the Bao Dai regime. Ngo Dinh Diem formed a
repressive and authoritarian government in South Vietnam. Anyone who oppose
Diem were put in jail and killed calling them as communist.
French
imposed an Ordinance 10, which permitted Christianity and outlawed Buddhism.
Ngo Dinh Diem did not abolish that Ordinance 10.
Dictatorial
rule of Ngo Dinh Diem was opposed at broad level. And people united under the
banner of the National Liberation Front (NLF).
NLF
started fighting for the unification of Vietnam and against the rule of Ngo
Dinh Diem with the help of Ho Chi Minh government in the North.
The
Entry of the US into the War
United
States considered this alliance of North and South Vietnam as threat. He did
not want communist to gain power in this region. So US decided to stop the
formation of union and sent troops and arms in the favour of Ngo Dinh Diem of
South Vietnam and jumped in war with NLF in Vietnam.
America
had advanced technology instead of that he also had to bear severe loss in the
war in Vietnam as well as Vietnam.
War
continued from 1965 to 1972. Instead of better medical supplies available to
the US army casualties were high in this war. About 3403100 US services
personal served in Vietnam in this battle. About 47244 died and 303,704 were
injured in this battle. 23014 persons were listed to 100 percent disabled among
injured by the Administration.
US
were brutal in this battle. They used heavy weapons, tanks and the most
powerful bombers of the time B52s. They used chemical weapons, such as Napalm,
Agent Orange and phosphorous bombs at wide level also. These weapon destroyed
many villages and decimated jungles. Large number of civilians died in this
war.
The
Ho Chi Minh Trail
US
underestimated the power of small country to fight the most technologically
advanced country in the world. US underestimate the power of nationalism to
move people to action, inspire them to sacrifice their home and family, live
under horrific conditions and fight for independence. In fact US army defeated
at the front of courage and patriotic feeling for nation of Vietnamese.
The
Ho Chi Minh Trail is nothing but an immense network of footpaths and roads and
tells the story of using limited resources to great advantage by Vietnamese.
Most of the trails were outside Vietnam in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia with
branch lines extending into South Vietnam. This Ho Chi Minh Trail was used to
transport men and materials from the north to south. From 1967 about 20000 North
Vietnamese troops came south each month on this trail.
The
trail has support base and hospitals along the way. In some parts supplies were
transported in trucks, but mostly they were carried by porters, who were mainly
women. These porters carried about 25 kilos on their backs, or about 70 kilos
on their bicycles.
US
bombarded regularly at the trail to disrupt the supplies, but efforts to
destroy this important supply line failed because they were rebuilt quickly by
Vietnamese.
The
Nation and Its Heroes
The
National movements affect different groups of society. Women played an
important and unmemorable role in the National Movement of Vietnam.
Women
as Rebels
Women
traditionally enjoyed greater equality in Vietnam than China, especially in
lower classes but they had had only limited freedom in determining future and
in public life.
With
the growth of nationalist movement a new image of womanhood emerged in Vietnam.
Writers and political thinkers began idealizing women who rebel against social
norms. A famous novel written by Nhat Linh caused turmoil in society. Because
in novel it was showed that a woman denied a forced marriage and marrying
someone other of her choice who was involved in nationalist politics.
This
rebellion against social traditions marked the arrival of new woman in
Vietnamese society.
Heroes
of Past Times
In
1913 the nationalist Phan Boi Chau wrote a play based on the lives of the Trung
sisters. Trung sisters fought against Chinese domination to save the Vietnamese
nation.
After
that play Trung sisters came to be idealized and glorified. They were depicted
in paintings, plays and novels representing them the indomitable will and the
intense patriotism of the Vietnamese.
Trieu
Au was the other women rebels of the past. She orphaned in childhood. On
growing she organized a large army and resisted Chinese rule. Finally when her
army crushed, she drowned herself. She became a sacred figure. Her image
popularized by nationalists to inspire people to action.
Women
as Warriors
In
1960s, women were portrayed as young, brave and dedicated by media. Stories
were written to show how happy they felt when they joined the army. Nguyen Thi
Xuan was one of them. She reputed to have shot down a jet with just twenty
bullets she had.
Women
were working not just a warrior but as a great workers while war. They were
shown with rifle in one hand and a hammer in other.
Whether
women were young or old they contributed selflessly and at great level to save
the country. As casualties were increased in war in 1960s, women were urged to
join the struggle in large numbers.
Many
women joined the resistance movement. Many helped in nursing the wounded,
constructing underground rooms and tunnels and fighting the enemy. Along the Ho
Chi Minh trail young volunteers kept open 2195 km of strategic roads and
guarded 2500 key points. Between 1965 and 1975 while war with US; of the 17000
youth who worked on the trail, about 70 to 80 percent were women. It was said
that there were 1.5 million women in regular army, the militia, the local
forces and professional teams.
Women
in Times of Peace
By
1970s when peace talks began and the end of the war seemed near, women started
represented as workers begins predominance. They no longer represented as
warrior rather they are shown working in agriculture, factories and production
units.
The
End of the War
The
prolongation of war created strong reaction in US. Media from USA started
giving different reaction about war. Some films were also made in the support
and against the war.
After
getting real picture from media voice were started raising against war in USA.
It became clear that US could not crush the resistance of Vietnamese and even
US did not gain the support of Vietnamese peoples. In war thousands of soldiers
from both sides lost their lives along with many Vietnamese civilians. Scene of
war was showing on television also. This war was called the first television
war. Many of the people around the world got disillusioned with what the US was
doing. Some of the writers of US visited the Vietnam and praised the bravery
and heroic defense of Vietnamese for their country. The scholar Noam Chomsky
called the war 'The Greatest Threat to Peace, to national self determination
and to international cooperation'.
With
widespread questioning negotiations to end of war started. A peace settlement
was signed in Paris in January in 1974. And conflict between US and Vietnam
ended.
But
fighting between the Saigon regime and the NLF continued.
Finally
on 30 April 1975 NLF occupied the presidential palace of Saigon and unified
Vietnam.
Vietnam
got independence after immense bloodshed. US had bowed their head infront of
bravery of Vietnamese. The bravery and patriotism of Vietnamese will remain unmemorable
and will be praised for ever.
