Effects of First World War
The
War led to a huge increase in defence expenditure. This was financed by war
loans and by increasing taxes. Customs duties were raised and income tax was
introduced to raise extra revenue. Prices of items increased during the war
years. The prices doubled between 1913 and 1918. The common people were the
worst sufferers because of price rise. Forced recruitment of rural people in
the army was another cause of widespread anger among people.
Crop
failure in many parts of India resulted in acute shortage of food. Influenza
epidemic further aggravated the problem. According to 1921 census, about 12 to
13 million people died because of famines and epidemic.
The
Idea of Satyagraha
Mahatma
Gandhi advocated a novel method of mass agitation; called satyagraha. This
method was based on the idea that if someone is fighting for a true cause,
there is no need to take recourse to physical force to fight the oppressor.
Gandhiji believed that a satyagrahi could win a battle through non-violence,
i.e. without being aggressive or revengeful.
Some
early satyagraha movements organized by Mahatma Gandhi
- Peasants' movement in Champaran in 1916.
- Peasants' movement in Kheda in 1917.
- Mill workers' movement in Ahmadabad in 1918.
The
Rowlatt Act(1919)
The
Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in 1919. The Indian
members did not support the Act, but it was passed; nevertheless. The Act gave
enormous powers to the government to repress political activities. It allowed
detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
On
6th April, 1919; Gandhiji launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed
Rowlatt Act. The call of strike on 6th April got huge response. People came out
in support in various cities, shops were shut down and workers in railway
workshops went on strike. The British administration decided to clamp down on
the nationalists. Several local leaders were arrested. Mahatma Gandhi was
barred from entering Delhi.
Jallianwalla
Bagh
On
10th April 1919; in Amritsar; the police fired upon a peaceful procession. This
provoked widespread attacks on government establishments. Martial law was
imposed in Amritsar and the command of the area was given to General Dyer.
The
infamous Jallianwalla Bagh massacre took place on 13th April; the day on which
Baisakhi is celebrated in Punjab. A crowd of villagers came to participate in a
fair in Jallianwalla Bagh. This was enclosed from all sides with narrow entry
points. General Dyer blocked the exit points and opened fire on the crowd.
Hundreds of people were killed in the incident. Public reaction to the incident
took a violent turn in many north Indian towns. The government was quite brutal
in its response. Things took highly violent turn. Mahatma Gandhi called off the
movement as did not want violence to continue.
Need
of Wider Spread of Movement
The
Rowlatt satyagraha was limited mainly to the cities and towns. Mahatma Gandhi
felt the need of a more broad-based movement in India. He was convinced that it
could be only possible by bringing the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform.
Khilafat
Movement
The
Khilafat issue gave him the opportunity to bring the Hindus and Muslims on a
common platform. The Ottoman Turkey was badly defeated in the First World War.
There were rumours about a harsh peace treating likely to be imposed on the
Ottoman emperor; who was the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa).
A Khilafat committed was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to defend the Khalifa.
This committee had leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. They
also wanted Mahatma Gandhi to take up the cause to build a united mass action.
At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, the resolution was
passed to launch a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and also for
swaraj.
Non-Cooperation
Movement
In
his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule
was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only
because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in
India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come. Gandhiji believed
that if Indians begin to refuse to cooperate, the British rulers will have no
other way than to leave India.
Some
of the proposals of non-cooperation movement:
- Surrender the titles which were awarded by the British government.
- Boycott civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils and schools.
- Boycott foreign goods.
- Launch full civil disobedience campaign, if the government persisted with repressive measures.
Differing
Strands within the Movement
The
Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921. Various social groups
participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. All of
them responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to
different people.
The
Movement in the Towns
The
movement started with good participation from the middle-class in the cities.
Thousands
of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and
teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
The
council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras. In Madras,
the Justice Party, the party of the non-Brahmans, felt that entering the
council was one way of gaining some power ? something that usually only
Brahmans had access to.
Foreign
goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge
bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value
dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. The boycott of foreign cloths helped
in increasing the demand of cloths made in India.
Reasons
for Slowdown of Movement
Khadi
was more expensive than mill-made cloth. The poor people could not afford to
buy khadi.
Boycott
of British institutions posed a problem of lack of alternative Indian
institutions. Such institutions were slow to come up. Students and teachers
began coming back schools. Similarly, lawyers resumed their work in the courts.
Rebellion
in the Countryside
From
the cities, the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside. It drew
into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribals which were developing in
different parts of India in the years after the war.
Awadh
The
peasants? movement in Awadh was led by Baba Ramchandra. He was a sanyasi who
had earlier worked in Fiji as an indentured labourer. The peasants were against
the high rents and may other cess which were demanded by talukdars and
landlords. The peasants demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and
social boycott of oppressive landlords.
Jawaharlal
Nehru began touring the villages in June 1920. He tried to understand the
problems of the peasants. Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up by October. It was headed
by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. By associating itself
with the peasants? movement, Congress was able to integrate the movement in
Awadh with a wider non-cooperation movement. At many places, people stopped
paying rents by invoking the name of the Mahatma.
Tribal
Peasants
Tribal
peasants gave their own interpretation of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of
swaraj. The tribals were prevented from entering the forests to graze cattle,
or to collect fruits and firewood. The new forest laws were a threat to their
livelihood. The government forced them to do begar on road construction.
Many
rebels from the tribal areas became non-violent and often carried guerilla
warfare against the British officials.
Swaraj
in the Plantations
The
plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without
permission; as per the Indian Emigration Act of 1859. When the news of
Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the plantations, many workers began to defy
the authorities. They left plantations and headed towards their homes. But they
got stranded on the way because of a railway and steamer strike. They were
caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
Many
analysts are of the opinion that the vision of the movement was not properly
defined by the Congress. Different people interpreted the term ?swaraj? in
their own ways. For them, swaraj meant an end to all their problems. However,
people from various strata of society began to chant the name of Gandhi and the
slogan of Swatantra Bharat. In some way or the other, they were trying to
relate to the wider movement which was beyond their comprehension.
Civil
Disobedience Movement
By
the end of 1921, the movement was turning violent at many places. Gandhiji
decided to withdraw the non-cooperation movement in February 1922. Even many
Congress leaders were fatigued by mass struggles and wanted to participate in
the elections to the provincial councils. The provincial councils were set up
by the Government of India Act of 1919. Many leaders were of the opinion that
it was important to oppose the British policies by becoming a part of the
system.
The
older leaders; like Motilal Nehru and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party
(within the Congress) and began to argue for a return to council politics.
The
younger leaders; like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru; were in favour
of more radical mass agitation and pressed for full independence.
This
was a period of internal debate and dissension within the Congress. This was
also the period when the effect of the Great Depression was being felt on
India. Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926. The prices collapsed in
1930. The whole country was in turmoil because of the effects of Great
Depression.
Simon
Commission
The
British government constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. The
commission was made to look into the functioning of the constitutional system
in India and suggest changes. But since all the members in the commission were
British, the Indian leaders opposed the commission.
The
Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928. It was greeted with the slogan ?Go
back Simon?. All parties joined the protest. In October 1929, Lord Irwin
announced a vague offer of ?dominion status? for India but its timing was not
specified. He also offered to hold a Round Table Conference to discuss the
future constitution.
The
radical leaders within the Congress became more assertive. They were not
satisfied with the British proposal. The liberals and moderates were in favour
of the dominion status, but they were losing their influence in Congress.
In
December 1929, the Lahore Congress was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. It
passed the resolution of 'Purna Swaraj' or full independence for India. It
declared 26th January 1930 as the Independence Day and gave a call to the
people to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. But the
celebrations attracted little public support.
It
was then left to Mahatma Gandhi to correlate the abstract idea of freedom to
more concrete issues of everyday life.
Salt
March
Mahatma
Gandhi believed that salt could be a powerful symbol to unite the whole nation.
Most of the people; including the British scoffed at the idea. Abolition of the
salt tax was among many demands which were raised by Gandhiji through a letter
to Viceroy Irwin.
The
Salt March or Dandi March was started by Gandhiji on 12th March 1930. He was
accompanied by 78 volunteers. They walked for 24 days to cover a distance of
240 miles from Sabaramati to Dandi. Many more joined them in the way.
On
6th April 1930, Gandhiji ceremonially violated the law by taking a fistful of
salt.
The
Salt March marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Thousands
of people broke the salt law in different parts of country. People demonstrated
in front of government salt factories. Foreign cloth was boycotted. Peasants
refused to pay revenue. Village officials resigned. Tribal people violated
forest laws.
Response
of British Rulers
The
colonial government began to arrest the Congress leaders. This led to violent
clashes in many places. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested about a month later. People
began to attack the symbols of British rule; such as police posts, municipal
buildings, law courts and railway stations. The government?s repression was
quite brutal. Even women and children were beaten up. About 100,000 people were
arrested.
Round
Table Conference
When
things began to take a violent turn, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement. He
signed a pact with Irwin on 5th March 1931. This was called the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact. As per the Pact, Gandhiji agreed to participate in the Round Table
Conference in London. In lieu of that, the government agreed to release the
political prisoners.
Gandhiji
went to London in December 1931. The negotiations broke down and Gandhiji had
to return with disappointment.
When
Gandhiji came back to India, he found that most of the leaders were put in
jail. Congress had been declared illegal. Many measures were taken to prevent
meetings, demonstrations and boycotts. Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil
Disobedience Movement. By 1934, the movement had lost its momentum.
People's
Perception Of The Movement
Farmers
For
the farmers, the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. When
the movement was called off in 1931; without the revenue rates being revised;
the farmers were highly disappointed. Many of them refused to participate when
the movement was re-launched in 1932. The small tenants just wanted the unpaid
rent to the landlord to be remitted. They often joined the radical movements which
were led by Socialists and Communists. Congress did not want to alienate the
rich landlords and hence, the relationship between the poor peasants and
Congress was uncertain.
Businessmen
The
Indian merchants and industrialists could grow their business during the First
World War. They were against those colonial policies which restricted their
business activities. They wanted protection against imports and a
rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio which would discourage imports. The
Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress was formed in 1920 and the Federation
of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) was formed in 1927.
These were the results of attempts to bring the common business interests on a
common platform. For the businessmen, swaraj meant an end to oppressive
colonial policies. They wanted an environment which could allow the business to
flourish. They were apprehensive of militant activities and of growing
influence of socialism among the younger members of the Congress.
Industrial
Workers
The
industrial workers showed lukewarm response to the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Since industrialists were closer to the Congress, workers kept a distance from
the movement. But some workers selectively participated in the Movement.
Congress did not want to alienate the industrialists and hence preferred to
keep the workers? demands at bay.
Women's
Participation
Women
also participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement in large numbers. However,
most of the women were from high-caste families in the urban areas and from
rich peasant households in the rural areas. But for a long time, the Congress
was reluctant to give any position of authority to women within the
organization. The Congress was just keen on the symbolic presence of women.
The
Limits Of Civil Disobedience
Participation
of Dalits
Initially
Congress used to ignore the dalits; because it did not want to alienate the
conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi was of the view to bring
social reforms to improve the plight of the dalits. Mahatma Gandhi declared
that without removing the practice of untouchability, swaraj could not be
achieved.
Many
dalit leaders wanted a different political solution to the problems of the
dalit community. They demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and
separate electorate for dalits. Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience
Movement was limited.
Dr.
B R Ambedkar organized the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in
1930. He clashed with Mahatma Gandhi; during the second Round Table Conference;
on the issue of separate electorate for dalits.
When
the British government conceded Ambedkar?s demand, Gandhji began a fast unto
death. Finally Ambedkar had to accept Gandhiji?s position. This resulted in
signing of the Poona Pact of September 1932. It made the provision for reserved
seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislative councils.
But the voting was to be done by the general electorate.
Participation
of Muslims
After
the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, a large section of
Muslims became alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s, the Congress was
more visibly associated with the Hindu religious nationalist groups.
The
Congress and the Muslim League tried to renegotiate and alliance. Muhammad Ali
Jinnah was an important leader of the Muslim League. He was willing to give up
the demand for separate electorate. But he wanted reserved seats for Muslims in
the Central Assembly. He also wanted representation in proportion to population
in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Punjab and Bengal). At the All Parties
Conference in 1928, M R Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed the
efforts at compromise. This further alienated the Muslims from the Congress.
The
Sense Of Collective Belonging
Nationalism
spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation,
when they discover some unity that binds them together. The united struggles
for independence helped in building the sense of collective belonging.
Additionally, a variety of cultural processes also captured the spirit of
nationalism.
Nation
Depicted in Images: The identity of the nation is most often symbolised in a
figure or image; with which people can identify the nation. The image of Bharat
Mata was the pictorial representation of the mother land. ?Vande Mataram? the
national song was written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1870s. This was
sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. Different artists projected their
own version of Bharat Mata.
Folklores
Many
nationalist leaders took help of folk tales to spread the idea of nationalism.
It was believed that the folk tales revealed the true picture of traditional
culture.
National
Flag
The
national flag which we see today has evolved through various stages. A tricolor
(red, green and yellow) was used during the Swadeshi movement. There were eight
lotuses on it which depicted the eight provinces of British India. There was a
crescent moon on the flag which represented Hindus and Muslims. Gandhji had
designed the Swaraj flag by 1921. It was also a tricolor (red, green and white)
and there was a spinning wheel in the centre.
Reinterpretation
of History
Many
Indians felt that the British had given a different interpretation of the
Indian history. They felt that it was important to interpret the history from
an Indian perspective. They wanted to glorify the rich past of India so that
the Indians could feel proud of their history.
