What
is Nationalism?
Nationalism
is a belief system which instills a sense of common identity among the members
of a nation. National flag, national symbol, national anthem, etc. play an
important role in developing and strengthening the idea of nationalism.
Rise
of Nationalism in Europe
Before
the middle of the nineteenth century, the countries in Europe were not in the
form as we know them today. Different regions in Europe were ruled by various
multi-national dynastic empires. These were monarchies which enjoyed absolute
power over their subjects. Various technological and the ensuing social changes
helped in developing the ideas of nationalism. The process of creation of
nation states began in 1789; with the French Revolution. It took about hundred
years for the idea to gain concrete shape which resulted in the formation of
France as a democratic nation state. The trend was followed in other parts of
the Europe and led to the establishment of the modern democratic systems in
most parts of the world; at the beginning of 20th century.
French
Revolution
First
Expression of Nationalism
French
Revolution led to a change in politics and constitution of France. In 1789 the
power was transferred from monarchy to a body of citizens. It was proclaimed
that henceforth the French people would shape the destiny of their country.
Creating
a sense of Nationhood
Various
steps were taken by the revolutionaries to create a sense of common identity
among people. Some of these steps are given below
(a)
The idea of the fatherland and citizen was created to emphasize a community
which enjoyed equal rights under the constitution.
(b)
The royal standard was replaced with a new French flag; the tricolor.
(c)
The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and it was
renamed as the National Assembly.
(d)
In the name of nation; new hymns were composed and oaths were taken.
(e)
Martyrs were commemorated.
(f)
A centralized administrative system was created which formulated uniform laws
for all citizens.
(g)
Internal custom duties were abolished.
(h)
A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(i)
Regional dialects were discouraged and French language was promoted as the
common language of the nation.
(j)
The revolutionaries also declared that it was the mission and destiny of French
people to liberate the people of Europe from despotism and help other regions
of Europe in becoming nations.
Effect
on other parts of Europe
In
different cities of Europe, people became motivated from the events in France.
As a result, students and other people from the educated middle classes started
setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities made a ground for further
encroachment by the French armies. The French army moved into Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland and a large part of Italy in the 1790s. Thus, the French armies
started carrying the idea of nationalism to foreign lands.
Napoleon
Napoleon
was the Emperor of France from 1804 to 1815. Although Napoleon destroyed
democracy in France by reintroducing monarchy in France; but he made
revolutionary changes in the field of administration. The idea was to make the
system more rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804; which is commonly
known as the Napoleonic Code abolished all privileges based on birth. It also
established equality before the law and secured the right to property. Even in
those territories which came under his control; Napoleon began to introduce
many reforms as he did in France. He simplified the administrative divisions in
the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. He abolished the feudal
system and peasants could be freed from serfdom and manorial dues. Guild
restrictions were removed in towns. Transport and communication systems were
improved.
Reaction
of People
Peasants,
artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed this new found freedom. They
could realize that uniform laws and standard system of weights and measures and
a common currency would be more helpful in movement and exchange of goods and
capital across various regions.
But
in areas which were conquered by France, people?s reactions towards French rule
were mixed. Initially, the French armies were seen as the torchbearers of
liberty. But very soon people could realize that the new administrative system
was not going to guarantee political freedom. Increase in taxes, censorship and
forced conscription into the French armies were seen as outweighing the
advantages of administrative changes which Napoleon brought. Thus the initial
enthusiasm of people began to turn into hostility.
Situation
Before Revolution
In
the mid-eighteenth-century Europe there were no ?nation-states? as we know them
today. Modern day Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms,
duchies and cantons. Their rulers had their own autonomous territories. Diverse
people lived under autocratic monarchies of Eastern and Central Europe. The
people did not share a collective identity. The region was full of people from
different ethnic groups who spoke different languages. The only binding factor
among the people was their allegiance to a common emperor.
Causes
and Process of Emergence of Nation States
Aristocracy
Socially
and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across
regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses.
They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families
were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was,
however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up
of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and
small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding
was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.
New
Middle Class
In
Western and parts of Central Europe industrial production and trade grew. This
led to the growth of towns where new commercial classes emerged. The existence
of this new class was based on production for the market. New social groups
came into existence. A working class population and a middle class (which was
composed of industrialists, businessmen and professionals) made the new social
groups. It was this class which shaped the ideas of national unity.
Idea
of Liberal Nationalism
Ideas
of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the
ideology of liberalism. For the new middle classes; freedom for the individual
and equality of all before the law were the bases of idea of liberalism. From
the political perspective, the idea of liberalism emphasized the concept of
government by consent. Liberalism also meant an end of autocracy and clerical
privileges. Further, it meant the need of a constitution and a representative
government. Inviolability of private property was also emphasized by the
nineteenth century liberals.
Suffrage
Universal
suffrage was yet to become a reality in France. During the earlier period of
revolution, only property-owning men had the right to vote. For a brief period
during the Jacobins, all adult males got the voting right. However, Napoleonic
Code reverted to the earlier system of limited suffrage. During the rule of
Napoleon, women were accorded the status of minor; subject to authority of
father and husband. The struggle for voting rights for women and non-propertied
men continued throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century.
Liberalisation
in Economic Sphere
Economic
liberalization was another hallmark of the Napoleonic Code. The emerging middle
class was also in favour of economic liberalization. Let us take example of
German-speaking regions in the first half of nineteenth century. There were 39
states in this region which were further divided into many principalities. Each
principality had its own currency and its own units of measurement. If a
merchant travelled from Hamburg to Nuremberg; he had to pass through 11 customs
barriers and pay a custom duty of about 5% at each barrier. Custom duty had to
be paid according to weight and measure. Wide difference in units of weight and
measurement created further confusion. The conditions were not at all business
friendly and served as obstacles to economic activities. The new commercial
class was demanding a unified economic territory so that there could be
unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
In
1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed; at the initiative of Prussia
and was joined by most of the German states. Tariff barriers were abolished and
the number of currencies was reduced from thirty to two. Development of a
railways network further enhanced mobility. This created some sort of economic
nationalism which helped in strengthening the national sentiments which were
growing at that time.
A
New Conservatism After 1815
Napoleon
was defeated in 1815 by the combined power of Britain, Russia, Prussia and
Austria. After the defeat of Napoleon, European governments wanted to follow conservatism.
The conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state
and society should be preserved. They believed in preserving the monarchy, the
Church, social hierarchies, property and the family. But most of them also
wanted to retain the modernization which Napoleon carried out in the spheres of
administration. The conservatives believed that modernization would strengthen
traditional institutions. It was believed that a modern army, an efficient
bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could
strengthen the monarchies of Europe.
The
Treaty of Vienna
The
representatives of the European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria)
met at Vienna in 1815 to draw up a settlement of Europe. The Austrian
Chancellor Duke Metternich was the host of the Congress. The Treaty of Vienna
of 1815 was drawn up at this meeting. Its objective was to undo most of the
changes which had come in Europe during the Napoleonic wars. Some of the steps
taken according the Treaty of Vienna are follows:
(a)
The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was
restored to power.
(b)
A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French
expansion in future. For example; the kingdom of the Netherlands was set up in
the north. Similarly, Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south. Prussia got
some important territories on its western frontiers and Austria got control of
northern Italy.
(c)
German confederation of 39 states which had been set up by Napoleon was left
untouched.
(d)
In the east, Russia was given part of Poland, while Prussia was given a portion
of Saxony.
The
conservative regimes which were set up in 1815 were autocratic. They were
intolerant of criticism and dissent. Most of them imposed censorship laws to
control the contents in newspaper, books, plays and songs.
The
Revolutionaries
After
the events of 1815, many liberal nationalists went underground for the fear of
repression.
Giuseppe
Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in 1807. He became a member
of the secret society of the Carbonari. When he was 24 years old, he was sent
into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. After that, he
founded two more underground societies; first Young Italy in Marseilles and
then Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to
be the natural units of mankind. So Italy had to be forged into a single
unified republic instead of being a patchwork of small state kingdoms.
Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set up
Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. The Conservatives feared Mazzini.
While
the conservative regimes were trying to consolidate their power, the liberals
and nationalists continued to spread the idea of revolution. These people
belonged to the educated middle-class elite; like professors, school teachers,
clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.
The
first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings were
overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. A constitutional monarchy was installed
with Louis Philippe at its head. The July Revolution sparked an uprising in
Brussels which resulted in Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands.
Independence
of Greece
The
Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feelings among the educated
elite across Europe. The struggle for independence among the Greeks began in
1821. The nationalists in Greece got support from many Greeks who were living
in exile. Moreover, they also got support from many West Europeans who
sympathized with the ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion
to support this struggle against the Muslim empire. It is important to note
that Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Treaty of
Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
The
Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Romanticism
was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of
nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists usually criticized the glorification of
reason and science. They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. They
tried to create a sense of collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the
basis of a nation.
Other
Romantics; like the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 ? 1803);
claimed that the true German culture could be discovered among the common
people; das volk. These Romantics used folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances
to popularize the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist). The emphasis on
vernacular language was also important to take the nationalist message to a
large number of people who were mostly illiterate. Karol Kurpinski celebrated
the national struggle through his operas and music in Poland. He turned folk
dances; like polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Language
also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After
Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the
Russian language was imposed everywhere. An armed rebellion took place against
Russian rule in 1831 but this was ultimately crushed. But after this, many members
of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national
resistance. In all Church gatherings and in all religious instructions, Polish
was used. The Russian authorities put a large number of priests and bishops in
jail or sent them to Siberia as punishment for their refusal to preach in
Russian. The use of Polish thus became a symbol of the struggle against Russian
dominance.
Hunger,
Hardship and Popular Revolt
The
1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. There was huge growth in
population in the first half of the nineteenth century. Number of unemployed
had increased manifold. There was large scale migration from rural areas to
urban areas. Such migrants lived in overcrowded slums in the cities. At that
time, the industrialization in England was more advanced than in other parts of
Europe. Hence, cheap machine-made goods from England gave stiff competition to
small producers in the towns of the other European countries. In some regions
of Europe, aristocracy was still powerful and the peasants were under the
burden of feudal dues and obligations. A year of bad harvest; coupled with
price rise in food led to pauperism in town and country.
The
year 1848 was one such bad year. Because of shortage of food and high level of
unemployment, the people of Paris came out on the roads. The protest was at
such a large scale that Louis Philippe had to flee. A National Assembly
proclaimed a republic. It granted suffrage to all adult males above 21. It
guaranteed the right to work. National workshops were set up to provide
employment.
The
Revolution of the Liberals
When
the revolts of the poor took place in 1848, another revolution was being led by
the educated middle classes. In some other parts of Europe, independent
nation-states did not yet exist, e.g. Germany, Italy, Poland and the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. Men and women of the liberal middle classes from these
parts raised demands for national unification and a constitution. They demanded
the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles. They wanted a
constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association.
Frankfurt
Parliament
In
German regions, there were a large number of political associations whose
members were middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans.
They came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an
all-German National Assembly. On18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives took
out a festive procession to take part in the Frankfurt parliament which was
convened in the Church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German
nation. This German nation was to be headed by a monarchy subject to a
parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia was offered the crown on
these terms. But he rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the
elected assembly.
The
opposition of the aristocracy and military to the parliament grew stronger.
Meanwhile, the social base of the parliament eroded because it was dominated by
the middle classes. The middle class resisted the demands of workers and
artisans and thus lost their support. Finally, troops were called in and the
assembly was forced to disband.
Women
also participated in large numbers in the liberal movement. In spite of that,
they were denied the voting rights during the election of the Assembly. When
the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were allowed
only as observers to stand in the visitors? gallery.
Although
the liberal movements were suppressed by the conservative forces but the old
order could not be restored. In the years after 1848, the monarchs began to
realize that granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries
was the only way to end the cycle of revolution and repression. Hence, the
monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce changes which had
already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.
Serfdom
and bonded labour was abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
Germany:
Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
After
1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and
revolution. The conservatives now fanned nationalist sentiments to promote
state power and to achieve political dominance over Europe.
The
liberal movement of the middle-classes in Germany had earlier been repressed by
the combined forces of the monarchy and the military. This repression was also
supported by the large landowners (called junkers) of Prussia. After that,
Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
Otto
von Bismarck: Otto von Bismarck; the chief minister of Prussia, was the
architect of this process. He took the help of the Prussian army and
bureaucracy in his endeavour. Three wars were fought over seven years; with
Austria, Denmark and France. The wars ended in Prussian victory and completed
the process of unification. The Prussian king, William I was proclaimed the
German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871.
The
new state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal
and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a
model for the rest of Germany.
Unification
of Italy
Italy
also had a long history of political fragmentation. There were many dynastic
states and the multi-national Habsburg Empire in Italy. During the middle of
the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states. Out of them, only
Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under
Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was under the Pope and the southern regions were
under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. The Italian language had
yet to acquire a common form and it still had many regional and local
variations.
During
the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini planned to put together a programme for a unitary
Italian Republic. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848
meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor
Emmanuel II. The ruling elites of this region saw the possibility of economic
development and political dominance through a unified Italy.
Chief
Minister Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither
a revolutionary nor a democrat. He was like many other wealthy and educated
members of the Italian elite. He too was more fluent in French than in Italian.
He made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and thus succeeded in
defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, many armed
volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860,
they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. They
succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants and drove out the
Spanish rulers. Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy in 1861.
But a large number of the Italian population remained blissfully unaware of
liberal-nationalist ideology; probably because of very high level of
illiteracy.
The
Strange Case of Britain
The
formation of nation state in Britain did not happen because of a sudden
upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. Before
the eighteenth century, there was no British nation. The British Isles were
divided into different ethnicities; like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. Each
ethnic group had its own cultural and political traditions.
The
English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power. Thus it was able
to extend its influence on the other nations of the islands. The English
parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688 after a prolonged conflict.
The English parliament was instrumental in forging the nation-state of Britain.
The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation
of the ?United Kingdom of Great Britain?. In this Union, England was the
dominant partner and thus the British parliament was dominated by its English
members.
The
British identity grew at the peril of Scottish culture and political
institutions. The Scottish Highlands were inhabited by the Catholic clans. They
felt terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.
They were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their traditional
dress. Many of them were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
Ireland
suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and
Protestants. The Protestants of Ireland established their dominance over the
majority Catholics through the English help. There was a failed revolt led by
Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen in 1798. After that, Ireland was forcibly
incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. The English culture was
propagated forcefully to forge a new ?British Nation?. The older nations
survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
Visualizing
the Nation
Artists
used female figures to personify a nation. During French Revolution, artists
used the female allegory to portray the ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the
Republic.
In
France, the nation was christened as Marianne, which is a popular Christian
name for a woman. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and
Republic; the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade. Her statues were erected in
public squares and her images were marked on coins and stamps; to persuade the
people to identify with it.
Germania
became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves.
The German oak stands for heroism.
Nationalism
and Imperialism
By
the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalism could not retain its
idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment. It became a narrow creed with limited
ends. The major European powers manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the
subject peoples to further their own imperialist aims.
Conflict
in the Balkans: Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation
comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The inhabitants of this region were broadly
known as the Slavs.
A
large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This was
the period of disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of the ideas
of romantic nationalism in the Balkans. These developments made this region
very explosive. All through the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire tried to
strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms. But it could not
achieve much success. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its
control one by one and declared independence. The Balkans used history and
national identity to claim their right of independence. While the Slavic
nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan
area became an area of intense conflict. In the process, the Balkans also
became the scene of big power rivalry.
During
this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might. Each power; Russia, Germany,
England, Austro-Hungary; was keen on countering the hold of other powers over
the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series
of wars in the region and finally culminated in the First World War.
Meanwhile,
many countries in the world which had been colonized by the European powers in
the nineteenth century began to oppose imperial domination. People of different
colonies developed their own variation of nationalism. The idea of
?nation-states? thus became a universal phenomenon.
