The First Printed Book
The
earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From 594 AD
onwards, books were printed in China by rubbing paper against the inked surface
of woodblocks. The traditional Chinese ?Accordion Book? was folded and stitched
at the side because both sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed.
For
a very long time, the imperial state of China was the major producer of printed
material. The Chinese bureaucratic system recruited its personnel through civil
services examinations. The imperial state sponsored the large scale printing of
textbooks for this examination. The number of candidates for the examinations
increased from the sixteenth century, and this increased the volume of print.
By
the seventeenth century, the use of print diversified in China because of a
blooming urban culture. Print was no longer limited to scholar-officials.
Merchants used print in day-to-day life because they collected trade related
information. Fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of
literary masterpieces and romantic play became the staple for the reading
public. Reading acquired the status of a preferred leisure activity. Rich women
began to read and many of them began publishing their poetry and plays.
Print
in Japan
The
Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan
around 768 – 770 AD. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra which was printed in 868 AD was
the oldest Japanese book. Libraries and bookstores were packed with
hand-printed materials of various types. These included books on women, musical
instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, proper etiquette,
cooking and famous places.
Print
Comes to Europe
Marco
Polo was a great explorer from Italy. He returned from China in 1295 and
brought the knowledge of woodblock printing along with him. Thus, printing
began in Italy and travelled to other parts of Europe. Vellum was still the
preferred material for printing the luxury editions because printed books were
considered as cheap vulgarities. Vellum is a parchment made from the skin of
animals.
By
the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were widely used in Europe to print
various materials. It almost replaced the books made by calligraphy.
Gutenberg
and the Printing Press
Gutenberg
was the son of a merchant. Since his childhood he had seen wine and olive
presses. He also learnt the art of polishing stones, and became a master
goldsmith and also became an expert in creating lead moulds. Such moulds were
used for making trinkets.
Gutenberg
used his knowledge to bring innovation to the print technology. He used the
olive press as the model for the printing press and used the moulds for casting
the metal types for the letters. Gutenberg perfected the system by 1448. The
first book printed by him was the Bible.
Initially,
the printed books resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout.
In the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in
most parts of Europe. The growth of the print industry was so good that about
20 million books appeared in the European markets in the second half of the
fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, this number went up to about 200
million copies.
The
Print Revolution and Its Impact
A
New Reading Public
With
the print technology, a new reading public emerged. Books became cheaper
because of printing. Numerous copies could now be produced with much ease. This
helped in catering to an ever growing readership.
Access
to books increased for the public. This helped in creating a new culture of
reading. Literacy level was very low till the twentieth century in Europe.
Printers kept in mind the wider reach of the printed work. Popular ballads and
folk tales were published which could be listened by even the illiterates.
Literate people read out stories and ballads to those who could not read.
Religious
Debates and Fear of Print
Print
created an opportunity of a new debate and discussion. People began questioning
some established notions of religion. For the orthodox people, it was like a
challenge as they feared the disturbance in old order. In fact, the Protestant
Revolution in Christianity began because of print culture. The Roman Church
felt troubled by new ideas which raised questions about the existing norms of
faith. It even started to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
The
Reading Mania
The
literacy levels improved through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in
Europe. By the end of the eighteenth century, literacy rates were as high as 60
to 80 percent in some parts of Europe. The growth in literacy level created a
reading mania among people. Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed around
villages to sell books. Periodicals, novels, almanac, etc. formed the staple
for the reading mania.
Ideas
of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. New
ideas could be debated and shared with a wider target audience.
Print
Culture and the French Revolution
Many
historians are of the view that print culture created the conditions which led
to French Revolution. Some of such conditions are as follows:
(a)
Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers. These thinkers gave
critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. Voltaire and
Rousseau were among the prominent Enlightenment thinkers.
(b)
Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. General public began to
discuss the values, norms and institutions and tried to re-evaluate the
established notions.
(c)
By the 1780s, there was a surge in literature which mocked the royalty and criticized
their morality. Print helped in creating an image of the royalty that they
indulged in their own pleasure at the expense of the common public.
The
Nineteenth Century
There
was vast leap in mass literacy in Europe in the nineteenth century. This
brought a large numbers of new readers among children, women and workers. Many
books were written and printed keeping in mind the sense and sensibilities of
children. Many folk tales were rephrased to suit the children. Many women
became important as readers as well as writers. The lending libraries which had
been in existence from the seventeenth century became the hub of activity for
white-collar workers, artisans and lower middle class people.
Further
Innovations
Richard
M. Hoe of New York perfected the power-driven cylindrical press by the
mid-nineteenth century. This could print 8,000 sheets per hour. Offset press
was developed in the late nineteenth century. This could print up to six
colours at a time. Electrically operated presses came in use from the turn of
the twentieth century. This helped in accelerating the printing process. Many
other innovations took place during this period. All the innovations had a
cumulative effect which improved the appearance of printed texts.
New
Strategies to sell books:
- Many periodicals serialized important novels in the nineteenth century.
- In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
- The dust cover or book jacket is a twentieth century innovation.
- Cheap paperback editions were brought to counter the effect of the Great Depression in the 1930s.
India
and the World of Print
The
Portuguese missionaries were the first to bring printing press to Goa in the
mid-sixteenth century. The first books were printed in Konkani language. By
1674, about 50 books had been printed in Konkani and Kanara Languages. Catholic
priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin. They printed the first
Malayalam book in 1713.
From
1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette. It was a weekly
magazine. Hickey also published a lot of gossip about the senior officials of
the Company. Governor General Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey. Warren
Hastings encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers to
protect the image of the colonial government.
The
first Indian newspaper was the weekly Bengal Gazette which was brought out by
Gangadhar Bhattacharya.
Print
culture helped in initiating new debate on religious, social and political
issues in India. Many existing religious practices were criticized. Rammohun
Roy published Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 to criticize the orthodox views in the
Hinduism. The Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to counter
his opinions. In 1822, publication of two Persian newspapers began, viz. Jam ?
i- Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. Bombay Samachar; a Gujarati newspaper
appeared in the same year.
In
north India, the ulama began to publish cheap lithographic prints which
contained Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures. They also published
religious newspapers and tracts. The Deoband Seminary was founded in 1867. It
published thousands upon thousands fatwas about proper conduct in the life of
Muslims.
Ramcharitmanas
of Tulsidas was printed from Calcutta in 1810. From the 1880s, the Naval
Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published
many religious texts in vernaculars.
Print
helped in bringing the religious texts within reach of the common masses. It
also helped in shaping the new political debate. It also helped in connecting
the people from various parts of India; by carrying news of one part to
another.
New
forms of Publication
Initially,
people got to read the novels which were written by European writers. But
people could not relate to those novels because they were written in the
European context. Many writers emerged who began to write in the Indian
context. People could correlate with the theme and characters of such novels in
a better way. Many other new forms of writing also came into origin; like
lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters, etc.
A
new visual culture was taking shape by the end of the nineteenth century. Many
printing presses started to produce visual images in large numbers. Works of
painters; like Raja Ravi Varma were produced for mass circulation through
printing.
By
the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and
newspapers. They commented on various social and political issues.
Women
and Print
Many
writers wrote about the lives and feelings of women. Due to this, readership
among middle-class women increased substantially. There were many liberal husbands
and fathers who stressed on women?s education. While some women got education
at home, some others went to schools as well. This was the time, when many
women writers also began to express their views through their writings.
Conservative
Hindus and Muslims were still against women?s education. They thought that a
girl?s mind would be polluted by education. People wanted their daughters to
read religious texts but did not want them to read anything else.
While
Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed early, Hindi
printing began seriously only from the 1870s.
Print
and the Poor People
Very
cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century Madras towns.
These books were sold at crossroads so that poor people could buy them. Public
libraries were set up from the early twentieth century which helped in
increasing the access to books. Many rich people set up library in order to
assert their prestige in their area.
Print
and Censorship
Before
1798, the colonial rulers were not too concerned with censorship. Initially,
the control measures were directed against Englishmen in India who were
critical of Company misrule.
After
the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. The
Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. The Act provided the government with
extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. In
case of a seditious report, the newspaper was warned. If the warning was
ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery
confiscated.
